Ukraine: The Districts and Settlements of Ukraine

For centuries robbed of its political independence, the Ukraine today simply vegetates, instead of living in a state of full development. The fatal results of its lack of independence are visible in every aspect of the material and spiritual life of the country.

The present political-administrative division of the Ukraine is also a result of the want of political indepen- dence of this nation. This division corresponds neither to the natural nor to the anthropogeographical conditions, and to a great degree represents only entirely antiquated, now worthless remnants of the statesmanship of former centuries.

Even the state boundaries are very unnaturally drawn in the Ukrainian territory. The Austrian crown-province of Galicia embraces parts of Rostoche, Volhynia, Podolia, Pokutye, while other parts of this natural territory lie outside the state border, in Russia. The topography and the people are the same on both sides of the cordon; only the state authorities, and the ruling races are different. The Carpathian boundary between the Austrian and Hungarian parts of the Ukraine, to be sure, seems a good natural boundary, but in reality it would be that only if it ran along the southern foot of the range. For the Car- pathian region of the Ukraine, as a result of its easy communications constitutes not only a physico-geographi- cal, but also an anthropogeographical unit. On both sides of the border live the same Lemkos, Boikos and Hutzuls.

More glaringly still does the unnaturalness of the present political division of the Ukraine stand out, when we view the administrative units in the framework of the states which at present dominate the Ukraine. In Hungary, the Ukrainian part of the land is united into one great whole, together with Slavonia, Transylvania, Alfold, Banat, etc. All is centered in Budapest. Even the boun- daries of the antonomous countries are so constructed that, besides a piece of Ukrainian territory, they embrace an equally great or even greater, but, at any rate, heavily peopled piece of a foreign national territory, e. g., of the Roumanian, Magyar, Slovenian. As a result of this scatter- ing allotment, the Ukrainians of Hungary possess no politi- cal influence.

The same is the case in the Austrian parts of the Ukraine. Galicia proper, which is inhabited by Ukrainians, the nucleus of the ancient Ukrainian Kingdom of Halich, which, in its physico-geographical aspect, is wholly a part of Eastern Europe, is welded together with the so-called Western Galicia, properly a part of Little Poland (grand- duchy of Cracow) , which is inhabited entirely by Poles and belongs physically to Central Europe, both halves consti- tuting together one administrative unit. The result of this unnatural union is the bitter racial struggle of century-long duration between the Poles and Ukrainians, a struggle which is still going on without prospect of peace, and is very unfavorable for the beneficial development of the land. The Ukrainians are fighting for equal rights and against Polonization ; the Poles, in the name of their state tradition, for their hegemony in the land and for the forcible assimilation of the Ukrainians. The only remedy which presents itself would be the division of the present crown-province of Galicia into two crown-provinces, an eastern Ukrainian, and a western Polish province. The present crown-province of Bukowina also consists of parts of Pokutye, Pidhirye and the Ukrainian Carpathians, to- gether with a part of the Roumanian Carpathian foothills. This circumstance again brings about a national struggle between the Ukrainians and the Roumanians.

The greatest portion of the country, the Russian Ukraine, also suffers from an unnatural political division. The Ukrainian territory is divided into several great administrative districts, or groups of governments. Parts of the Ukrainian national territory lie in the Vistula Gov- ernments in Western, Southwestern, Southern and Little Russia and Caucasia. The boundaries of the individual governments everywhere are drawn without consideration for natural and ethnographic conditions. In this way the border districts of the unbroken Ukrainian territory have been united with parts of foreign racial territories into artificial administrative units, as, for example, the Govern- ments of Lublin and Sidlez (the present Government of Kholm), Grodno, Minsk, Kursk, Voroniz, Don region, Stavropol, Bessarabia, etc. This circumstance being a result of the poor development of constitutional life in Russia, has no great significance now, but may in the future become as unfavorable for the Ukraine as is the similar condition today in Austria-Hungary.

The anthropogeography of today in describing a land, very seldom takes such artificial divisions into consider- ation. Then there is the additional circumstance that these divisions, as is obvious, have no physico-geographical value. In like manner, the division of Russia "according to natural and economic, characteristics," by Arseniev, Semyonoff, Richter, Fortunatov, etc., are worthless for geographical purposes. The most suitable of any of them is that of Richter, which gives the Ukrainian territory an indepen- dent position. A good division also comes from M. Dra- hqmaniv, but it is not suitable for a geographical descrip- tion.

For all these reasons we shall keep to the natural districts which we described in Book I. Such a division is the only justifiable one in a country which, like the Ukraine, has no political independence.

The Carpathian region constitutes the first natural district of the Ukraine. It is populated by three Ukrainian mountain- tribes — the Lemkos (from Poprad to the Oslava), the Boikos (together with Tukholzians, from the Oslava to the Limnitzia) and the Hutzuls (from the Limnitzia to the Roumanian ethnographic border). The population is everywhere thinly strewn, especially in the Boike country. The agriculture of the region is not sufficient at any point to nourish even the sparse population. The Lemkos and Boikos carry on a little farming (oats, potatoes), the Hutzuls only along the edge of the mountains. Cattle-raising, with dairying, forestry and lumbering, and among the Hutzuls their fine home industry as well, constitute the main sources of sustenance of the mountain dwellers. Every year a large percentage of the population goes out for seasonal migrations.

The settlements of the Ukrainian Carpathians all have the character of villages. The Lemko and Boiko villages usually form long rows of farms, which extend along the valley bottom. The Hutzulian villages, on the other hand, consist of separate farms which lie scattered on valley sides, valley plains, and even valley spurs. The huts are everywhere built of wood, and covered with shingles or boards; only among the Boikos, sometimes, with straw. The very practical block houses, adapted to the climate, which are built by the Hutzuls, look very neat.

There are no cities in the Carpathian region, but only small towns, inhabited for the most part by Jews, and bristling with dirt. The Lemko country (Lemkivshchina) has only one larger town, Sianik (11,000 inhabitants), with railway-car factories. Also noteworthy, on the Hun- garian side, are the little towns of Svidnik and Strupkiv, on the Galician side the resorts of Krinitzia, Zeghestiv, Vissova, Rimaniv. In the little towns of the adjacent Polish (New Sandetz, Gorlice, Gribov, Dukla) and Slovenian territory (Bartfeld) the Lemkos supply their needs in industrial products and grain.

In the Boiko country (Boikivshchina) the towns are little centers for the retail trade and the lumber industry, as for instance, Turka on the Striy (11,000 pop.), Lisko on the San, Stari Sambir on the Dniester, and Skole on the Opir (match manufacture). The village of Smorze is noted for its cattle fairs, Sinevidsko for its fruit trade. Along the Opir valley lie numerous summer resorts (Tukhla, Slavsko).

In the Hutzul country, too, there are many summer resorts, particularly in the valley of the Pruth (Dora, Yaremche, Mikulichin, Tatariv, Vorokhta). The Hutzuls make their purchases in the little towns which lie at the exit of the main passes of the range — in Nadvirna (saw-mills), Delatin (salt-works), in Kossiv, noted for its mild climate, its flourishing home industry and fruit- culture and its salt-works, in Kuti, where tanning and furriery flourish, and in Viznitza (saw-mills and lumber industrial school). In the center of the Hutzul country lies the large Hutzulian village of Zabye. There are noted mineral springs in Burkut and Pistin. On the southern slope of the range lies the only city of the Hutzul country (21,000 pop.) and the town of Hust (10.000 pop.), both important as trade centers of the Hungarian Hutzul country.

In the southern sub-Carpathian zone the Ukrainian territory extends forward but a slight distance. The economic conditions of the mountain range suddenly give way to agriculture and vine-growing. All the cities of the region lie on the borders of the Ukrainian territory at the points of exit of important railroad lines and highroads out of the mountains. Such is the position of Uzhorod (17,000 pop.) and Mukachiv (17,000 pop.) where the products of the plain and the mountains are exchanged.

The Galicia-Bukowina sub- Carpathian hill country (Pid- hirye) forms a gentle transition from the mountains to the plain. With the great wealth of forest and meadow and a not very fertile soil, agriculture begins to predominate but slowly as we depart from the limits of the mountain district. Besides, the great abundance of salt and petro- leum demands many hands. The villages of the Pidhirye are as a rule, not large; the huts are regularly covered with straw. Here we find the rather unattractive type of the Galician cities and towns. Their chief characteristic is unfathomable mud or unfathomable dust on the streets, depending on the season of the year. Only the suburbs inhabited by the Ukrainian city-farmer population appear at all friendly, with their orchards and their little white- painted houses. The center of the city is regularly taken up by the Jews. Their houses, as a rule, defy all ideas of cleanliness and hygiene, and, amid bristling dirt, the retail trade surges thru miserable booths and shops. Almost nowhere in the Galician cities do we find wholesale trade or industry on a large scale, in the European sense. The Christian middle-class does not exist, and the educated class of the city population is represented by officials (usually Poles, and, in decreasing proportions, Ukrainians).

On the western borderlands of the Ukraine,, in this region, lies the city of Yaroslav on the San (25,000 pop.), a railway junction in an important strategic position. Founded by the ancient Ukrainian princes of Kiev, Yaro- slav was once famous for its annual fairs. Near it, on the San, lies Radimno with its rope industry. But the most important city on the San is Peremishl (57,000 pop.), at once one of the oldest cities of Galicia and the one-time capital of the Ukrainian dynasty of the Rostislavids. Peremishl owes its importance to its position as a bridge city at a point where important roads from the west and northwest cross the San to the east and south. It lies at the important junction of the Galician main railroad line, with the important Lupkov line coming from Hungary, and is accordingly, as a result of its position, a first-class fortress, which closes the San valley and cuts off access to the adjacent Carpathian passes. The commercial standing of the city is considerable; here, too, a Greek-Catholic bishopric has its seat, and here there exist numerous Ukrainian cultural and economic societies.

In the sub-Carpathian Dniester region, which is traversed lengthwise by the Galician Transversal Railroad, lie a number of important cities. On the Dniester we find Sambir (21,000 pop.) at the crossing of the railroads, with a lumber industry of some size. On the Tismenitza Railroad lies Borislav (15,000 pop.), but recently a little Boike village, now, together with the adjacent towns of Tustanovichi (12,000 pop.) and Skhidnitza, the center of petroleum and ozokerite production. A forest of artesian wells, factory chimneys, petroleum reservoirs, have sprung up amid the famous "Borislav mud," among miserable dirty houses which shelter so many millionaires and hungry wretches, so much happiness and misery, crime and immorality. The refineries for the petroleum that is gained here are located mostly in the adjacent Drohobich (39,000 pop.), the seat of the petroleum speculators. Salt works also are found in this city, still greater ones in the adjacent Stebnik, where enormous deposits of salt have been discovered, but thus far not been exploited. Trus- kavez is a well-known watering-place.

On the Striy lies the important railroad junction of Striy (33,000 pop.), with a mill, lumber and match industry, the seat of the Ukrainian dairymen's association and other Ukrainian organizations; at the mouth of the Striy the ancient town of Zidachiv. On the sub-Carpathian Trans- versal Railroad toward the east, lie the following: the watering-place Morshin, Bolekhiv with salt-works and match factories Dolina with salt-works and saw-mills, Kalush with saltpeter-mining and salt-works. Stanis- laviv (over 60,000 pop.), situated at the junction of the two Bistritza rivers, is an important railway center in which the Lemberg-Czernowitz Railroad meets the Trans- versal railroad, the South Polish Railroad and the Hun- garian branch railroad to Marmarosh. The city has an important industrial and commercial activity, and is the seat of the Greek-Catholic bishopric. Stanislaviv has inherited the former importance of Halich, the one-time capital of the Ukrainian Kingdom of the same name, which, at its highest development, reached the Polissye swamps on the north, the Dnieper on the east, the Black Sea and the Danube delta on the south. At that time (11th and 12th Century), Halich equalled or sur- passed in size, wealth and commercial importance, most of the capitals of Western Europe. After a thousand years of Polish dominion it is now a miserable town in a beautiful location, important geographically for its traffic advantages. A side-line here branches off from the main railroad into Podolia. Attempts are being made to enliven Dniester navigation, which begins here and in Zuravno at the mouth of the Svicha. Not far from Stanislaviv lie Tovmach, Tismenitza (10,000 pop.) with a leather industry, and Ottinia with a machine industry of some size.

In the Galician Pruth region, Kolomia (45,000 pop.) is the most important city, at the junction of sub-Carpathian and Pokutian railroad lines, with an important commerce and pottery industry. Further to the east, on the Pruth, lies Zabolotiv with a tobacco factory and Sniatin (12,000 pop.) with an active commerce and agricultural production. Dzuriv and Novoselitza have lignite mines. In the sub- Carpathian country of the Bukowina, the capital city, Czernowitz, developed in one century from a miserable village to a city of 93,000 inhabitants. Czernowitz has some industry and considerable commerce. Important railroads lead from here, via Novoselitza to Russia, and via Itzkany to Roumania. Czernowitz is the seat of the most eastern German University (but several professors lecture in Ukrainian), a Greek-Catholic metropolitan, and numerous Ukrainian organizations. In nearby Sada- hora, well-frequented annual fairs take place. The cities carrying on a lively trade, Seret, Storozinetz (10,000 pop.), Radivtzi(l7,000pop. — thecitywith thegreat breeding-stud), and Suchava (12,000 pop.), all lie on the boundary of the Ukrainian and Roumanian-speaking populations. Kat- shka possesses large salt-works.

The Rostoche, which embraces a part of Northern Galicia and the southern part of the Government of Kholm (eastern borderlands of the Governments of Lublin and Sidletz), is, for the most part, an agricultural country, altho the forest areas, which are still rather large, have retained their once flourishing lumber industry. The villages of this region are large, but consist, as a rule, of scattered hamlets and lone farms. There are not many cities in the Rostoche region, but on its southern border we find one of the most important in the Ukraine, the ancient royal city of Lviv (Lemberg, 220,000 pop.).

The importance of the geographical position of Lemberg is in the fact that it lies at the point of the easiest passage from the low country of the Buh to the west, and into the Carpathian country across the Ukrainian group of plateaus, which is narrowest here. Lemberg commands all the more important roads of the Western Ukraine, and, after their union, leads them westward. Lemberg is the greatest railroad center of all the Ukraine; nine railroads as well as eight highroads converge here from all parts of the continent. The thing that has contributed most to the remarkable growth of Lemberg in the last half-century, besides the railroads, is its position as the capital of Galicia, that largest of the Austrian crown-provinces. Founded about the middle of the 13th Century by the Ukrainian princes of Halich, Danilo and Lev, Lemberg, about the middle of the 14th Century, fell under Polish rule. Here industry and commerce flourished in the 15th and 16th Centuries, thanks to the German middle-class of the city; then Lem- berg declined irresistibly until it came under Austria's dominion as a little town, from which time on, it flourished again. At present Lemberg is the trade center of Ukrainian- Galicia and shows some industrial progress (brick-kilns, breweries, alcohol distilleries, railroad shops, etc.). As a result of recent rapid development, the character of the city is almost wholly modern; the number of historical landmarks is not large. Lemberg is the seat of three archbishops, a University with several Ukrainian chairs, a technical and a commercial college, as well as many trade schools and intermediate schools. Lemberg is also one of the chief centers of Ukrainian cultural life, and the seat of many important Ukrainian societies and institutions.

In the Galician Rostoche region there are besides Lem- berg, only small towns: Zovkva, Yavoriv (10,000 pop.), with lumber industry, Rava (11,000 pop.). At the railroad junction, Nemiriv with mineral springs, Potilich with a considerable pottery industry. Mosti veliki, the large village of Kaminka voloska (10,000 pop.), Belz, formerly a Ukrainian royal residence. On the Buh lie the following: the old town of Busk, Kaminka strumilova, Sokal, at the point where more active river navigation begins.

In the Kholm Rostoche, the most important city is Kholm (20,000 pop.), founded, like Lemberg, by Prince Danilo, now a Jewish city carrying on a lively trade in the agricultural products of this fertile region, and the capital of the Government of the same name. Tarnohorod and Tomashiv are notorious for their smuggling, Bilhoray is known for its sieve industry, Hrubeshiv and Zamostye (12,000 pop.) for their trade in foodstuffs.

A country of similar anthropogeographical character is the adjacent plain of Pidlassye. This country embraces the northern part of the Government of Kholm and the southern part of the Government of Grodno. Fertile stretches of land, with large villages, here alternate with large wooded areas (the virgin forest of Biloveza) and swamp areas, in which small villages and hamlets pre- dominate. The most important city of the Pidlassye is the fortress of Berestia (57,000 pop.) on the Mukhavetz, the eastern base of the fortress quadrangle of the Vistula region and an important railroad center, where five lines meet with the Dnieper-Buh Canal. Besides its very con- siderable commerce, Berestyehas great historical reminis- cences of the union of the orthodox church with Rome, accomplished here in 1596. On the left bank of the Buh lie the commercial cities of Vlodava and Bila (13,000 pop.), on the Mukhavetz HesKobrin (10,000 pop.), and in the neigh- borhood of the Bilovez Forest, the ancient Kamenetz- Litovsky and Bilsk.

The neighboring Ukrainian country in the east is the Ukrainian Polissye. It embraces the southern part of the Government of Minsk, on the right shore of the Zna and the Pripet, and the northern lowland region of the Governments of Volhynia and Kiev. As a result of the decided prepon- derance of forest and swamp, agriculture must retire to the background, and confine itself only to the small number of higher and more fertile places. There are not such great obstacles to cattle-raising, but forestry and lumber- floating play the most important part. The most important city of the Polissye is Pinsk (37,000 pop.), situated on the navigable Pina, where the Dnieper-Buh Canal and the Dnieper-Niemen Canal connect with the Pripet system. Here begins the regular steamship navigation of the Pripet, here there are large saw-mills, match factories, shipyards, beer and mead breweries and tobacco factories, and here active commerce and lumber-floating flourish. Another important river port is Davidhorodok on the mouth of the Horin, the people of which carry on ship-building and river-navigation and engage in sausage-making and cheese- making. Farther down the river is the antique Turiv, a former royal city, now a miserable little town with a population of farmers and timber-floaters. The equally antique town of Mosir (12,000 pop.) has retained a greater significance, with a good river harbor, ship-building industry and match-making. The last important port on the Pripet is Chornobil.

In the Volhynian Polissye, Kovel (17,000 pop.), situated on the navigable Turia, is, aboveall, an important railroad center, which carries on a considerable trade in agricultural products and wood. Another important railroad center is Sarni on the Sluch. The antique town of Orruch on the Norin is rich in swamp-ores and pottery-clay.

The natural district of Volhynia embraces only the Volhynian Plateau, together with the wide river plains, which penetrate far into the heart of the Plateau. To Volhynia, then, belongs the southern part of the present Government of Volhynia, as well as a small strip of the Government of Kiev, on the left bank of the Teterev. Here agriculture forms the main occupation of the people. Forestry and lumbering become less important. With re- gard to the manner of settlement, Volhynia still has a sugges- tion of the adjacent regions in the west and north, with their small villages, hamlets and single farms. In the east it begins to assume the genuine Ukrainian character, with large villages and country towns. The cities and towns of Volhynia are, as a rule, not large, inhabited chiefly by Jews, dirty and neglected, surpassing in this respect even the typical Galician villages and towns. On the Galician side there is only one city worthy of mention, namely Brodi (18,000 pop.), which carries on a considerable trade in agricultural and animal products, as well as some lively smuggling. On the Russian side the following may be enumerated, from west to east: Volodimir volinsky (10,000 pop.), formerly a royal city, now a miserable Jewish town with some lumber and grain trade and smuggling. Lutzk, Dubno and Rivne form the Volhynian triangle of forts directed against Austria. Lutzk (32,000 pop.) is an old royal city at the junction of roads which cross the navigable Stir at this point, and carries on a considerable trade, as well as a cloth and leather industry of some dimensions; Dubno (14,000 pop.), on the Ikva, is known for its once famous annual fairs; Rivne (39,000 pop.) carries on a considerable trade with grain, live-stock, alcohol, etc. Along the Austrian border lie : Berestechko on the Stir, memorable for the unhappy battle fought by Khmelnitsky against the Poles (1651); Radiviliv, opposite Brody, the main seat of smug- gling; Pochayiv, a famous place of pilgrimage, and simul- taneously a den of smugglers.

Kremianetz (18,000 pop.) on the Ikva, a strong fortress in the days of the Ukrainian princes, now carries on a con- siderable grain trade. On the Horin, at the point where that river becomes navigable, lies Ostroh (15,000 pop.), with many ruins, the former residence of the Princes of Ostro- hsky, who founded an academy here in the 16th Century, and made of Ostroh an important spiritual center of the Ukraine of that time. Zaslav (13,000 pop.), likewise on the Horin, was once the residence of the Princes of Zaslavsky. Both cities carry on some trade in grain today. On the Sluch lie the cities of Starokonstantiniv (17,000 pop.), founded by the Princes of Ostrohsky, with considerable export of grain and cattle, and Novhorod Volinsky (Zviahel, (17,000 pop.), rich in marsh-ore and pottery-clay. Korez (10,000 pop.) is famous for its porcelain clay. Just on the border of Volhynia lies its administrative center, Zitomir (93,000 pop.). This old city lies at the edge of the forest and agricultural regions, carries on a considerable trade in grain and wood, salt and sugar, and has an important clothing, leather and tobacco industry. Downstream, on the Teterev, lies the little commercial city of Radomishl (11,000 pop.).

Podolia's natural territory embraces the most eastern part of Galicia and almost the entire Government of Podolia, besides the northern borderlands of Kherson. Podolia is a purely agricultural region; its manufacturing is limited to home industry, besides some mills, distilleries and sugar factories. The Podolian villages are large as a rule, lie in rows in the canon valleys, while, on the height of the plateau, usually only single farms and hamlets are seen. The huts are almost all built of loam and covered with straw. City settlements are rare and small, all insigni- ficant emporiums for agricultural and animal products.

On the western edge of Galician-Podolia lie Horodok (13,000' pop.), on a large pond formed by the Vereshitza, and Lublin, with sulphur baths; on the Hnila Lipa, the antique city of Rohatin; on the Zlota Lipa, Berezani (13,000 pop.), with a large pond; on the Koropetz River there are Pidhaitzi and Monastiriska, with a tobacco factory; on the Stripa River, Zboriv, memorable for the decisive victory of Khmelnitsky over the Poles and for the treaty of 1649 following, which allowed the Ukraine almost complete autonomy — within the framework of the Polish state. Downstream, on the Stripa, lies the commercial city of Buchach (14,000 pop.). On the northern boundary of Podolia, already in the Buh region, lie Zolochiv (13,000 pop.) and Sassiv, with a paper and pottery industry. On the Sereth, and in its district, lie Zbaraz, memorable for the victory of Khmelnitsky (1648); Ternopil (34,000 pop.), the most important railroad center and commercial city of Podolia, with a large grain, cattle and alcohol trade; Terebovla, a former Ukrainian prince's residence; Chortkiv, a center of Podolian local railroads. On the Sbruch, the only town worth mention is the border town and border station of Pidvolochiska-Volochiska. In the Dniester canon there is only one important place. Salishchiki, with consider- able fruit-culture. All the cities of Galician-Podolia are bridge cities, and lie at convenient crossings over the left tribu- taries of the Dniester. All these crossings were once guarded by castles, about which cities were later developed. In Russian-Podolia the number of cities and towns is still smaller. The capital of the Government of Kamenetz Podilsky (50,000 pop.), lies on the Smotrich, and was at one time an important border-fortress against the Turks. To this day the city has no railroad connections, hence its commercial importance is very slight. The adjacent Zvanetz is memorable because of the Khmelnitsky cam- paign (1653). On the Dniester, whose entire valley is covered with fruit orchards and vineyards, lies the impor- tant river port of Mohiliv (33,000 pop.), with considerable lumber, grain and fruit trade; Ushitza with a fruit trade; the river part of Yampol on the Dniester rapids. In the region and the valley of the Boh lie Proskuriv (41,000 pop.), a genuine village-city with considerable trade; Pilavtzi, memorable because of the complete defeat suffered there by the Poles (1648); Meziboz, in an important strategic position against the Austrian border; Letichiv and Khme- lnik (11,000 pop.), surrounded by orchards; on the Shar R., Litin (10,000 pop.); on the Rivi the once famous Bar (11,000 pop.), now a miserable town; further downstream on the Boh, Vinnitza (48,000 pop.), once a Cossack city, memorable because of a defeat of the Poles (1651), now a lively commercial city. The former capital of the palatinate of Bratzlav is now entirely insignificant, likewise the new Olhopil on the Savranka. The only commercial city of any importance in Southern Podolia is the muddy Balta, which, in its famous annual fairs, trades in grain, cattle, bacon and skins, but especially pumpkins and melons, and has a soap and candle industry of some importance. The adjacent city of Ananiiv (17,000 pop.) also carries on considerable trade in agricultural products.

The Pokutian-Bessarabian Plateau embraces a narrow zone of Southeastern Galicia and the Northern Bukowina, as well as the northern part of the Russian Government of Bessarabia. The manner of settling is similar to the Podolian, with large villages and few small cities. Agricul- ture and wine-growing are the most important occupation of the people; toward the south cattle-raising is becoming of greater importance. Home industry is insignificant, of factory industry there is almost none. In Galician- Pokutye the only cities worthy of mention are Horodenka (11,000 pop.), in a very fertile region, and the old commer- cial city of Sniatin (12,000 pop.), and in Bukowina-Pokutye the commercial town of Kitzman. In Bessarabia we find, on the Dniester, the former fortress of Khotin (18,000 pop.), memorable for two Turkish battles (1621 and 1673), now a river port and the seat of an active grain and fruit trade, as well as a notorious nest of smugglers. The second Dniester port of Bessarabia, Soroki (15,000 pop.), serves principally the export trade. At some distance from the course of the Dniester lies the insignificant town of Orhuv (13,000 pop.), and the dirty city of Biltzi (19,000 pop.), with a large grain and cattle trade. The capital of Bessara- bia, Kishiniv (125,000 pop.), lies outside of the Ukrainian territory.

The Dnieper Plateau is important, not only because of its agriculture, cattle-raising and fruit-culture, but also because of a considerable cultivation of commercial plants, because of a developed home and factory industry, and because of a comparatively lively trade. It is one of the central districts of the Ukraine, with typical conditions of settlement. Large agglomerations of dwellings, pictur- esquely located, consisting of whitewashed, straw-covered clay huts, lie on the rivers and creeks, usually on wide valley bottoms or slightly inclined valley sides, sur- rounded and dotted with the fresh green of orchards. On the plateau, which is one great wave of never-ending grain-fields, there lie only a few scattered manors of large landowners, single farmhouses, bee orchards, adjoining little woodlands and groves. The number and size of the cities is not great. The prevailing type is that of the village city — a great village with an area of buildings in the middle, which have a city-like character. The streets are broad and un- paved, the green of the gardens being apparent even in the center of the city. Where the northeastern spurs of the Dnieper Plateau reach the Dnieper River, lies the natural capital of the Ukraine, the former "mother of the Ruthenian cities," Kiev (506,000 pop.). Its great history finds expression in an enormous number of architectural monu- ments, especially churches and convents. (Lavra Pecherska, the Church of Sophia, the Church of Andreas, the Tithe Church, the Golden Gate, etc.). Kiev was the capital of the ancient Ukrainian Kingdom and its spiritual center ; today it is called the "Ukrainian Jerusalem," and is visited by hundreds of thousands of pilgrims every year. Besides its historical importance, Kiev possesses also a great geograph- ical significance. Its picturesque position on the lofty right-hand bank of the Dnieper, which is cut up into beautiful erosive hills, offers great geographical advantages. Here, opposite the Desna outlet, the Dnieper, after receiv- ing its two largest tributaries, completes its transformation into the second largest river of Eastern Europe. The waterways of the Pripet, the upper Dnieper and the Desna here form a junction, the importance of which is heightened by the junction of railroads and highways at the same point; such thorofares have always found in Kiev the most convenient crossing over the Dnieper River into the Western Ukrainian lands. This junction of roads favors the rapidly progressing development of Kiev's commerce, which concentrates in the "lower city" (Podil) and in its great river harbor. Kiev is the most convenient emporium for the forest and grain regions of the Ukraine, which border on one another here. In the last decades a consid- erable factory industry has developed in Kiev, embracing all possible branches of industry. Above all, the sugar industry has its center here. Kiev has a Russian University and a technical college. Ukrainian cultural life, which has always had its main headquarters in Kiev, has experienced an unexpected rise here since 1905.

Not far from Kiev, which is an important fortress today, there lie many places of historical significance, among them the convents of Vidubitsky and Mezihirsky. Rzishchiv is a river port with some grain exportation. On the Stuhna lies the old city of Vassilkiv (18,000 pop.), with an insignifi- cant trade, from a modern point of view. At the point where the borders of the Governments of Kiev, Volhynia and Podolia touch, lies Berdichiv, a city of 83,000, inhabit- ed mostly by Jews, after Kiev the most important emporium for cattle and grain in the country. The products of the industry of this place are offered for sale by Jewish peddlers thruout the entire right half of the Ukraine. In the river region of the Ross we find several cities which are local centers of the sugar and alcohol industry: Skvira (16,000 pop.), in a region covered with ancient walls, with pottery and cap manufactures; the old Cossack city of BilaTserkov (61,000 pop.), famous for the treaty of Khmel- nitsky with the Poles (1652), now a lively commercial city, with sugar and machine manufactures; Tarashcha (11,000 pop.), with a considerable wagon industry (the familiar tarantasses are made here) . Korsun is noteworthy because of the victory of Khmelnitsky over the Poles (1648). Nearby lie the villages of Kirilivka and Morintzi.the home of the greatest Ukrainian poet, Taras Shevchenko.

The entire plateau zone along the right Dnieper bank is full of old monuments of Ukrainian history, of walls, ancient fortifications, ruins and barrows. Along the Dnieper lie in succession: Trekhtimiriv, Kaniv, Cherkassi, once the most important center of the Ukrainian Cossack organ- ization. Near Kaniv, elevated on the lofty right bank of the Dnieper, is the mound of Shevchenko, visited every year by numerous companies of pilgrims of all classes of the Ukrainian nation. Kaniv is now a little town with an insignificant river harbor. Cherkassi (40,000 pop.), on the other hand, thanks to its large river harbor and the railroad which crosses the Dnieper here, has developed into a lively commercial city (wood, iron, sugar and salt trade, lumber and sugar industry). By the example of Cherkassi or Kreminchuk, we are shown how the poor villages and towns on the Dnieper could be developed if cultural con- ditions were favorable. A fine example of such a neglected town is Chihirin (10,000 pop.), on the Tiasmin, the former residence city of the Ukrainian hetmans. Situated, as tho by a wonderful coincidence, in the center of the present Ukrainian territory, Chihirin is hardly more than a large village, with crooked, muddy streets, a slight lumber and grain trade, remains of the Chumak organization, and an insignificant stonecutters' trade. In Subotiv, nearby, Khmelnitsky was buried, but his grave was destroyed by the Poles a short time after. At the Tiasmin outlet lies the river port of Kriliv (12,000 pop.), with lumber and cattle trade; further downstream, Verkhnodniprovsk, with an iron industry. At the source of the Inhuletz is Olexandria (14,000 pop.), noteworthy for some milling industry.

On the southwestern and southern border of the Dnieper Plateau, which is really part of the country drained by the Boh, there lie several smaller towns, e. g., Lipovetz, Haisin, Novomirhorod, with some grain and cattle trade. In this respect, Zvenihorodka (17,000 pop.) is of greater importance. Nearby lies Katerinopol, with its lignite mines. Uman (42,000 pop.) is known because of its associations with the Haydamak times, its great park, and its considerable grain trade. The largest city of this strip of borderland, Yelisavet (76,000 pop.), at the source of the Inhul, carries on a considerable trade in grain and wool, and possesses an important factory industry.

The Dnieper Plain, in its northern part, reveals quite a Polissian character. But in the north we note the first differences too — the highly developed home industry and agriculture much more highly developed than in the Polissye region. On the left Desna bank, lumbering declines gradually, and the villages of the Polissian type give way to the typical Ukrainian villages, consisting of neatly whitewashed, straw-covered huts, which lie pictur- esquely among fruit-gardens. The towns and suburbs here, as in fact everywhere in the left half of the Ukraine, have an entirely rural appearance. The cities have very wide streets and squares. There are very few connected rows of houses, and the single houses are surrounded by gardens and large yards. The Dnieper Plain embraces the greatest part of the Governments of Chernihiv and Poltava, and the northern edge of Katerinoslav.

The chief city of the northern half of the section is Chernihiv (33,000 pop.), an old city, perhaps as ancient as Kiev. It lies at the crossing of the main road leading to Muscovy, across the navigable Desna. In the city and its vicinity we find many historical monuments, churches, walls and barrows ; but the present commercial importance of the city is very slight. Konotop (20,000 pop.) , surrounded by swamps, and at one time a strong fortress, famous for the victory of the Cossack hetman, Vihovsky, over the Russians (1659), now carries on a considerable commerce, thanks to its railroad junction, and has large peat deposits. Bakhmatch, which lies nearby, is an important railroad junction. On the Sem lies the commercial town of Baturin, the former hetman residence, whose population was completely slaughtered by Menshikov in 1709. Sosnitza, Borzna (12,000 pop.) and Berezna (10,000 pop.) carry on an insignificant grain and cattle trade. On the navigable Oster lies Nizin (52,000 pop.), an old city of the time of the Ukrainian princes, in the 17th Century a Greek colony carrying on a lively trade, later famous for its great annual fairs. Just now the tobacco and grain trade of the city is increasing considerably. There is also a philological academy here. Further downstream, on the Oster, we find two old towns, Koseletz and Oster, with a river harbor and a considerable net industry. On the Trubaylo and on the Alta lies the ancient city of Pereyaslav (15,000 pop.), founded by Volodimir the Great, noteworthy for the victory of the Cossack hetman, Taras Triasilo, over the Poles (1630). Here the unfortunate treaty of 1654 was enacted, joining the Ukraine, which had just been freed from Polish rule, to Russia, as an autonomous vassal state. The once navigable Trubaylo has become shallow, the railroad line has left the city lying to one side and Pereyaslav has lost all sig- nificance. Equally insignificant is the adjacent town of Zolotonosha.

In the Sula region, on the verge of the Dnieper Plain, lies Romen (Romni, 33,000 pop.), with annual fairs that are important even today, the center of the judicial district of Romni-Libau, which transports the products of the Ukraine to the distant Baltic ports. Romen has a soap industry and tobacco factories, and here and in the adjacent town of Lokhvitzia, fruit and tobacco culture flourish. The center of Ukrainian tobacco-culture is Priluky (31,000 pop.), on the Udai, which carries on the greatest tobacco trade in all Russia, exporting half a million puds of it annually. On the Udai also lies the old Cossack city of Piriatin, now an important railroad center. Below the outlet of the Udai into the Sula, lies ancient Lubni (10,000 pop.), with its great fruit-gardens and tanneries.

In the region drained by the Psiol, we find on the Khorol, the old Cossack city of Mirhorod (10,000 pop.), so masterfully pictured by Gogol, with its industrial school and its great home industry. Mirhorod was once an important center of the Chumak organization. Not far from it lies the railroad center of Romodan and the antique town of Khorol. Hadyach is noteworthy because of the treaty of the Cossack hetman, Vihovsky, with Poland (1658), which was to join the Ukraine as the third autonomous unit to the Polish-Lithuanian state. Sinkiv (10,000 pop.) is an important center of a versatile home industry; Rashivka, a center of the Prassoli societies; Sorochintzi, the birthplace of Gogol, has grain and cattle markets; Reshetilivka is famous for its sheep-raising and its leather industry. Above the outlet of the Psiol into the Dnieper, lies the chief river port of the region, Kreminchuk (99,000 pop.), an important bridge city, where numerous highways and two railroads cross the navigable Dnieper. Kreminchuk trades, particularly in lumber and grain, is an emporium for lumber, coal and salt, and has machine, tobacco, carriage and leather factories, and large saw-mills. The city is subject to many floods and conflagrations, but is growing constantly. Half of the population is comprised of Jewish merchants and business men. In the spring the population of the city is regularly doubled. On the opposite Dnieper bank lies the river port of Krukiv (10,000 pop.), almost a suburb of Kreminchuk.

In the river region of the Vorskla, on the northeastern boundary of the plain, lies Oposhnia, widely known for its pottery. Farther downstream lies the city of Poltava (83,000 pop.), the chief city of the southern part of the left half of the plain, notable for the unfortunate battle (1709) in which Peter the Great, with Polish help, destroyed the plan of the dashing hetman, Mazeppa, to free the Ukraine from Russian dominion, with the aid of CharlesXII. of Sweden. Today Poltava is a rising industrial city, with an important railroad junction and great annual fairs, chiefly for wool and horses. Kobeliaki (12,000 pop.), situated downstream on the Vorskla, has a cloth industry of some dimensions, as has also the district of Konstantinohrad, in the river region of the Orel. On the southeastern border of the plain, where it joins the Pontian plain in the region of the Samara, lie the old Zaporog settlements of Samar- chik (Novonoskovsk, 13,000 pop.) and Pavlohrad (41,000 pop.), with a considerable grain trade and a large mill, leather and wax industry.

The spurs of the Central Russian Plateau, which lie within the borders of the Ukrainian national territory offer an almost complete anthropogeographical analogy to the above discussed district. In the north the Polissian character is still apparent. In the south agriculture and home industry are well developed. Traffic is more difficult, because of the greater distance to the navigable Dnieper, but is rather active with the Muscovite country. The left plateau district embraces the northwest frontiers of the Governments of Chernihiv and Poltava, all of the Government of Kharkiv and the adjacent districts of Kursk, Voroniz and Don.

The northernmost town of the Ukraine is Mhlin, with its important annual fairs. In the vicinity lies Pochep, with some textile industry and Klintzi (12,000 pop.), the "Man- chester of the Chernihiv country," with spinning-mills, cloth, leather and metal factories. The inhabitants of nearby Ardon engage in carriage-making, and carry on peddling thruout the entire Ukraine. Considerable indus- try and trade is carried on also by Novosibkiv (16,000 pop.) and Klimiv. Starodub (13,000 pop.), the old Cossack city, on the other hand, is rich in historical reminiscences. The ancient town of Novhorod Siversky,on the Desna, and Korop, downstream, are insignificant today. Kluhiv (15,000 pop.) carries on a considerable grain trade. In the vicinity lies Shostka, with a powder factory which supplies all the powder factories of Russia with salpeter. Krolevetz (10,000 pop.) still has important annual fairs, the old town of Putivl some trade in grain and flax, Bilopilye (15,000 pop.), important annual fairs and a great grain trade. In the country about the source of the Sula lies Nedrihailiv; at the source of the Psiol is Sudza (13,000 pop.), with a large grain, honey and fruit trade. Miropilye (11,000 pop.), has an important shoe industry, Sumi (52,000 pop.), situated at a railroad junction, has an important factory in- dustry (especially sugar factories) and important annual fairs. The old Cossack city of Lebedin (14,000 pop.), famous because of the atrocities of Menshikov (1708), now carries on a considerable grain trade.

In the region of the source of the Vorskla lies the town of Hraivoron, downstream Okhtirka (32,000 pop.), a much frequented place of pilgrimage, with considerable fruit-culture and lumber, fur, shoe, pottery and milling industries. Considerable fruit-culture is carried on also by Bohodukhiv.

The farther part of the left plateau lies in the region drained by the Don. On the small rivers, Kharkiv and Lopan, lies the capital of the region, Kharkiv (248,000 pop.). Founded as a Cossack hamlet in the 17th Century, Kharkiv has grown very rapidly, thanks to its geographical position at a convenient crossing point from the Dnieper region into the Don region, between the interior and the sea. Here was once a crossing of Chumak roads, and is now a railroad junction. Hence the importance of Kharkiv lies in commerce. Four great fairs, whose business still amounts to 80 million rubles a year, on an average, are especially important for trade in grain, horned cattle, horses, wool and manufactures. Besides, Kharkiv has a considerable factory industry (linen, cloth, soap, candle, sugar, alcohol, tobacco, brick, ceramic, machine, boiler and bell factories). Kharkiv is the seat of a Russian University, and one of the chief centers of Ukrainian cultural life.

In the east of the Donetz course lie several small cities, e. g., Zolochiv, with its annual fairs; Valki, with a consi- derable home industry and large fruit-gardens. In the country about the source of the Donetz, on the border of the Ukraine, lies Bilhorod (22,000 pop.), a commercial city with a woolen industry. Downstream, on the Donetz, lie Vov- chansk (11,000 pop.), Chuhuyiv (13,000 pop.) and Smiiv. Korocha (14,000 pop.) carries on grain, cattle and fruit trade in its annual fairs, and has some industry (oil-pressing, alcohol-distillation, and albumen manufacture). On the Oskol lie the following: Stari-Oskol (17,000 pop.), with a considerable trade and with a leather, wax, mead and to- bacco industry; the insignificant town of Novi-Oskol, Valuiki, Urasova (13,000 pop.), with grain trade, tanneries and rope factories; Kupiansk at a railroad junction. On the Tikha Sosna lies Biriuch (13,000 pop.), with annual fairs and oil factories, Olexiyivka, known for sunflower- culture and painters' guilds, and Ostrohorsk (22,000 pop.), with a large grain, cattle and bacon trade, and soap, wax and tobacco industry, once a center of the fish trade. Starobilsk (13,000 pop.) has lively annual fairs.

On the Don, within the province of the plateau, there are no larger cities. Korotoiak (10,000 pop.) carries on an active trade, Pavlovsk has soap factories, fat-extraction and oil-presses, and is an important river-port, from which the regular Don navigation begins. Altogether, on the eastern border country of the Ukraine, there are no larger cities or even towns. Only a few isolated large villages gain greater significance thru their markets and industry. One of these is the largest village of the Ukraine: Butur- linivka (38,000 pop.), with important annual fairs, with brick-kilns, tanneries, alcohol-stills, as well as very con- siderable furriery and shoemaking.

The Donetz Plateau is, from an anthropogeographical point of view, a very remarkable country, which has its closest analogy in the North American mining districts. Only the northern edge of the country on the Donetz has an appearance analogous to the adjacent Kharkiv country, with large, typically Ukrainian villages and village-towns. All the remaining region of the Donetz Plateau is a naked steppe. Here and there factory chimneys, isolated or in groups, rise, surrounded by factory buildings and laborers' huts. The settlements come into existence and grow with true American speed. The Donetz Plateau embraces parts of the Governments of Kharkiv, Katerinoslav and Don.

One of the farthest advance guards of the typical Ukrainian settlements is Isium (23,000 pop.), on the Donetz, one of the chief centers of the pottery industry.

Slaviansk, once Tor (20,000 pop.), on the Torez, has large salt mines and salt lakes, with bathing pavilions, which draw many guests in the summer, large salt-works and a number of mills, porcelain and metal industries. Besides, Slaviansk has important horse-markets. Nearby, on the chalk-cliffs of the Donetz, lies the famous convent of the Holy Mountains. On the eastern border of the Ukraine, on the Donetz, lies the river port of Kamenske (51,000 pop.), with a great grain trade and glass-works.

In the mining and factory district of the Donetz Plateau there lie, besides innumerable small industrial towns, a number of more important centers. Luhan (60,000 pop.) has a large metallurgical industry with foundries and hammer-works, machine-factories, numerous alcohol-stills, breweries, tanneries, soap and tile factories. Bakhmut (33,000 pop.) has large salt mines and salt-works and considerable trade; the adjacent town of Mikitivka, mercury and coal mines. Yusivka (49,000 pop.) is the chief center of the coal mines, iron and steel factories; Hrushivka (46,000 pop.) the center of the anthracite mines.

The Pontian Plain gives us an anthropogeographical picture which is different from that of the thus far described sections of the Ukraine. Here, in the newly settled steppe region, the type of the Ukrainian settlements gradually disappears. The Ukrainian type of the large villages remains, to be sure, but these villages are, by their position, dependent upon the water as well as other conditions of a practical nature, such as roads, mines, etc., which tempt a great number of people to settle in the district. The huts here and there bear the marks of provisional buildings, are not always whitewashed, are covered with reeds, and in some places even earthen huts have been preserved. As a rule, however, the typical Ukrainian whitewashed and straw-covered clay hut advances farther and farther, and is sometimes even prettier and better equipped here than in Northern Ukraine, thanks to the greater prosperity of the peasant. In the last few years more and more brick houses have been built, covered with tiles. Extensive steppe agriculture and steppe cattle-raising have, to this time, been the chief occupation ; on the coast, salt-extraction and navigation. Typical Ukrainian towns are rare here, but in the once wild steppes, on the other hand, large commercial and industrial cities have shot up, which possess a much more European appearance than- the Russian cities. Al- most all these cities lie on the sea, or at the river outlets. The Pontian Plain embraces the southern parts of Bessara- bia, Kherson, Katerinoslav, the mainland part of Tauria, the southwestern part of the Don region and the northern part of the Kuban region.

On the Kilia arm of the Danube delta lie the following important river ports, at the same time the centers of the Danube trade and of the sea-fishing industry: Ismail (36,000 pop.), Kilia (12,000 pop.) and Vilkiv. Akkerman (40,000 pop.), on the Dniester liman, rich in historical memories, is an important harbor for smaller ships, and carries on a considerable salt, fish, bacon and woolen trade. On the lower course of the Dniester lie the river ports of Dubosari (13,000 pop.), located in the midst of vineyards and fruit-gardens and tobacco fields, with a considerable tobacco, wine, cattle and grain trade; Benderi (60,000 pop.), a strong fortress with a considerable trade, surrounded by fruit-gardens, vineyards and melon-patches and Teraspol (32,000 pop.) with a large grain trade. Here the goods shipped down the Dniester are unloaded, to be sent by rail to Odessa.

Odessa (620,000 pop.), the largest city and the most important port of the Ukraine, is situated 32 kilometers north of the Dniester outlet, and opposite the Dnieper liman, on a deep but open roadstead. By means of expen- sive constructions, the unprotected harbor of Odessa was considerably improved. It now has six protected harbor basins for ships. In some winters the harbor does not freeze over, at other times remaining frozen from 31 to 67 days, but then it can be kept open without difficulty by ice-breakers. The city itself is built up on the high and naked steppe plain, where orchards can be planted and taken care of only with the greatest difficulty. The city has an entirely European appearance, with broad, straight streets and fine houses. There are almost no historic landmarks in Odessa, since it was founded as late as 1794. The city grew very rapidly, especially in its free-harbor period (1817 — 1859). Today Odessa is the most important sea- port of the Russian Empire, after St. Petersburg, and even surpasses the latter in exports. The exports from Odessa are made up chiefly of grain, also cattle, wood, sugar, fishing products, fats and alcohol. These exports go to England, Germany, France, Italy, Holland, Belgium and the far east. The imports of Odessa are disproportionately smaller than the exports, and are made up chiefly of coal, rice, tropical fruits, tea, etc., the benefit of which goes mostly to the cities of Central Russia. Outside of this commercial activity, which is directed by the stock exchange and the numerous banks, Odessa also possesses a well- developed factory industry (mills, sugar, oil, macaroni, canned-goods, alcohol, metal, ceramic, and chemical factories). About the year 1900, the annual productive value was 70 million rubles. Odessa is also a university city, and one of the intellectual centers of the Ukraine. In the vicinity of Odessa are the famous limans of Kuyalnik and Khadzybei, with their sanatoriums.

On the Boh, at the point where the river becomes navigable, lies Vosnesensk, an important river port, with some industry and considerable wood and grain trade. On the deep Boh liman, at the mouth of the Inhul, lies Mikolaiv (103,000 pop.), a verv important naval and commercial harbor, which has the greatest exportation of grain, after Odessa, and large shipyards, foundries and machine-shops. Krivi Rih (15,000 pop.), on the Inhul, has 33 iron mines, and is the center of Ukrainian iron mining.

On the Dnieper, on the border of the Pontian and Dnie- per Plains, lies the city of Katerinoslav (218,000 pop.), hardly more than a century old. Katerinoslav owes its great importance to its position on the Dnieper at the beginning of the rapids section, and at the end of the upper steamboat navigation, where an important railroad line crosses the river, connecting the iron mines of Krivi Rih with the coal fields on the Donetz. Hence, Katerinoslav is, above all, an industrial city with large foundries, forges and machine shops. Katerinoslav carries on the greatest lumber trade in the entire Ukraine. Its grain and coal trade is very important too. Below the rapids, in the old Zaporog country, sacred to every Ukrainian, lies the rapidly rising city of Olexandrivsk (51,000 pop.), an important river port and railroad junction, with a metal and milling industry. Nikopol (17,000 pop.), the point of crossing of the old commercial road over the Dnieper into Crimea, is the center for manganese mining, and has some milling indus- try. Its harbor is exceptional in that it is reached by smaller sea-vessels, which, however, sail up the Dnieper only as far as Berislav (12,000 pop.), where the grain is transferred from river boats to sea-vessels. On the left Dnieper bank, opposite Berislav, lies the important river harbor of Kakhivka. Oleshki has considerable vegetable, fruit and melon-culture, fishing and crab-fishing.

Not far from the outlet of the Dnieper into its liman, lies the government capital, Kherson (92,000 pop.), like Odessa, Mikolaiv and Katerinoslav, a young city of the end of the 18th Century. Its harbor was first made accessi- ble to large sea-vessels by the dredging of the ship-canal of Otshakiv in the Dnieper liman (1887), and since then the city has been growing rapidly. Kherson carries on a very important lumber and grain trade, and has large saw-mills, grain-mills, soap and tobacco factories. Two fortresses defend the entrance to the Dnieper liman, Ochakiv (12,000 pop.), with an insignificant harbor for coast vessels, and Kinburu.

In the narrow strip of low country on the north shore of the Black Sea, all the larger cities keep close to the coast. Melitopol on the Molochna (17,000 pop.), carries on con- siderable trade in cattle, lumber, skins, eggs and wool, and has large mills, alcohol-stills and factories, which make agricultural machinery. Berdiansk (36,000 pop.), despite its poor harbor, exports much grain, and has machine factories, mills, breweries, and fine fruit gardens and vine- yards. The former great importance of Berdiansk has been inherited by Mariupol (53,000 pop.), with a good harbor at the mouth of the Kalmius, a city which possesses some factory industry, and carries on an active export trade in coal, coke, metal and grain. Still more important are the harbors at the mouths of the Don. Opposite the Don delta lies Tahanroh (75,000 pop.) with a leather and metal industry, as well as an extensive trade in grain, fish, beef, oil, bacon, leather and fruit, the most important grain exporting harbor of the Ukraine, after Odessa and Mikolaiv. In the Don delta lies Rostiv (172,000 pop.), the most im- portant commercial city of Southeastern Ukraine, with an extensive trade in grain, cattle, wool and flax, large mills, shipyards, tobacco and machine factories. The Armenian city of Nakhichevan (71,000 pop.) forms the suburbs, as it were, of Rostiv, taking considerable part in its industrial and commercial activity. The historically memorable city of Osiv (Azof, 31,000 pop.) is an important center of the Don and Azof fishing industry, and has some grain trade. Yesk (51,000 pop.), on the eastern shore of the Sea of Azof, has some grain export, and is a not insig- nificant importing city.

The mountains and hill country of the Crimea are not properly a part of the Ukrainian territory, altho the Ukrainian element flows into the villages and cities of the land in an uninterrupted stream, while the Mohammedan Tartar population emigrates to Turkey. In the northern part of the Crimean peninsula, the economic and settlement conditions are the same as in the Pontian lowland. There is an especially important cattle-raising industry. In the southern, mountainous part of the peninsula, agriculture and cattle-raising lose their predominating importance, and fruit, wine and vegetable-cultivation, navigation and salt-making, which flourishes along almost the entire coast of the Crimea, comprise the chief occupations of the population. The chief center of salt-manufacture lies on the salt lakes and limans of Eupatoria (30,000 pop.), where also famous sanatoriums are located. In the northern foothills of the Yaila lies the ancient capital of the Khans, Bakchisarai (13,000 pop.), which has entirely preserved its oriental character, as well as the new capital of Tauria, Simferopol (71,000 pop.), the center of the fruit and wine- culture and of important fruit-canning factories. An extensive fruit trade is carried on also by Karasubazar (15,000 pop.).

At the gates of the Crimean Riviera is the city of Sevastopol (77,000 pop.), world renowned since the Crimean War, a great sea-fortress and the strongest naval port of the Russian Empire in Europe. The commercial harbor of the city has been without importance for the last twelve years. In the vicinity, on a beautiful bay, lies Belklava, known for its fisheries. On the southern coast is the following chain of watering-places and summer-resorts: Alupka, Livadia, Yalta (23,000 pop.), Orianda, Alushta, Hursuf. In the summer patients and vacationists come here from all the cities of Russia, and the Riviera of Crimea is also growing continually in importance as a winter resort.

On the eastern spurs of the Crimean peninsula lie two large cities. Feodosia (formerly Kaffa, 40,000 pop.) is the largest commercial port of Crimea, with a considerable grain and fruit export. Kerch (57,000 pop.) also has a commercial port, used especially by large ships, which must avoid the shallow Sea of Azof, but the city derives a much greater importance from its extensive fishing indus- try, its fish-canning and milling industry, and in recent years its metallurgical industry, which exploits the large mineral deposits of the region.

The sub-Caucasus country of Kuban, colonized a century ago by the posterity of the Zaporogs, offers, in its western part, an anthropogeographical picture quite analogous to the other central regions of the ancient Ukraine. It is actually a piece of the old Ukraine, trans- planted to the foot of the Caucasus Mountains, with its large villages, farms (khutori), its important agriculture and extensive cattle-raising. Fishing, lumbering and hunting play an important part in its economic life, besides fruit and wine-culture. The mining industry is showing great promise.

The eastern and southern part of the sub-Caucasus country, which, besides parts of Kuban, embraces also parts of the Government of Stavropol and of the Black Sea and Terek regions, is a land newly settled by the Ukrainians, and has a still imperfect anthropogeographical type.

The center of the land and of the Ukrainian cultural life is Katerinodar (100,000 pop.) on the Kuban, the capital of the Kuban Cossacks. It carries on an active trade in agricultural products. The main port of the region is the rising city of Novorossysk (61,000 pop.), with a large grain, wool and petroleum export. Temriuk, in the Kuban delta, also exports much grain. On the Bi!a lies the commercial city of Maikop (49,000 pop.) ; on the Luba, Labinsk (33,000 pop.), both important for the exchange of products of the plains and the mountains. On the Stavropol Plateau lies Stavropol (61,000 pop.), with an important grain and cattle trade, Praskoveya (11,000 pop.), with considerable wine- culture, and Olexandrivsk (10,000 pop.). At the foot of the mountain range lies the renowned mineral spring region around the commercial city of Piatihorsk (32,000 pop.).